From hungary-online-owner Wed May 24 14:20:20 1995 Received: from localhost (daemon@localhost) (fnord) by nando.yak.net (8.6.5/8.6.5) id OAA14635 for hungary-online-out31415; Wed, 24 May 1995 14:20:20 -0700 Received: from localhost (daemon@localhost) (fnord) by nando.yak.net (8.6.5/8.6.5) id OAA14626; Wed, 24 May 1995 14:20:02 -0700 Received: from jhorv@mars.iif.hu () via =-=-=-=-=-= for hol@hungary.yak.net (14622) Received: from mars.iif.hu (mars.iif.hu [192.84.225.92]) (fnord) by nando (8.6.5/8.6.5) with SMTP id OAA14619 for ; Wed, 24 May 1995 14:19:17 -0700 Received: by mars.iif.hu (5.67a8+/ULTRIX-1.01) id AA02578; Wed, 24 May 1995 23:18:15 +0200 Date: Wed, 24 May 1995 23:18:13 +0200 (MET DST) From: John Horvath To: Hungary On-line Subject: (HOL) transit migration Message-Id: Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: TEXT/PLAIN; charset=US-ASCII X-Charset: US X-Char-Esc: 0 Sender: owner-Hungary-Online@hungary.yak.net Precedence: bulk Reply-To: Hungary-Online@hungary.yak.net Hello people, This a long one. John :) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ON THE MOVE by John Horvath On a harvested field a pair of soldiers vigiliantly walk on a beaten path. Their eyes scan the ground for anything unusual. They glance at the border and, seeing no one in sight, continue along their way. It is another average day on the Hungarian-Austrian border. All along the former Iron Curtain, soldiers patrol the borders of Austria and Germany. Borders that used to prevent people from going out are being patrolled once again -- this time to prevent people from coming in. Within only a few years, eastern Europe has quickly become a transit zone for migrants heading west. The disintegration of the previous systems of government in eastern Europe has led to uncontrolled movements of people in search of better economic and social opportunities. Subsequently, diverse and often complex patterns of migration and transit routes across eastern Europe have developed. It is usually a multi-staged process, which involves months of travelling across nations such as Bulgaria, Romania, the Ukraine, and Russia before reaching the stepping-stone countries to the west: Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. What is almost always forgotten in the whole process is the plight of the migrants themselves. Many are caught in holding patterns, unable to make the final leap to the west. As a result, this transit migration phenomenon has become a concern to governments in both eastern Europe and the west. In order to help governments deal with this sudden influx of people, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) Migration Information Programme has been recently set up in the region to study these migratory movements. They see transit migration in some areas of eastern Europe as a potentially explosive phenomenon. In addition to providing fresh information to concerned governments and institutions about these movements, medical and resettlement programs are undertaken by the organization as well. Still, migrants are usually unaware of international organizations, such as Amnesty International, the Red Cross, the IOM, or any other NGO's that assist migrants and refugees. Also, they are afraid to apply for any kind of assistance because it would expose them and jepordize their chance for further movement westward. TYPES OF MIGRANTS According to IOM reports, transit migrants can be categorized into three main groups: desperate migrants, immigrants, and suitcase traders. Desperate migrants are those who want to cross to the west as soon as possible. They usually don't integrate into society in which they are transiting. They travel mainly because of social, economic, or ethnic persecution. Gypsies (Romas) and those from war-torn areas of former Yugoslavia fall into this type of category. Immigrants are those who use the transit areas of eastern Europe as a "waiting room" for their final destination to the west. Unlike desperate migrants, they are not in such a hurry to move westward. They have more resources and are from a better social position, thus preferring to move to the west as legally as possible. Unlike both desperate migrants and immigrants, so-called "suitcase traders" are those who are not interested in the west as their prime objective. Instead, they seek the economic opportunities to be had in transiting throughout eastern Europe in a circuit that involves their home country and one or more transit countries, often including Turkey as a place to purchase goods. They usually stay for 1-3 days and do not seek to establish themselves permanently in the west; rather, they look forward to making enough money on the road in order to live at home comfortably and support their families. As a Vitenamese trader in Prague explains: "I was working in a factory but it was as though I did not work, because the salary I used to get there was not even enough to buy food for my family." There are a variety of push and pull factors inducing people to move. Generally war, high unemployment, persecution, and poverty are all factors forcing people to leave their homes while more economic opportunities, higher standards of living, and the chance for social mobility attract people to certain areas. Migration is often seen as an "investment for children" and as a future hope for one's family. Specific reasons of transit migrants for leaving their country of origin was the difficult economic situation and, in some cases, such as with the migrants from the Middle East and Indian sub-continent, the political atmosphere of fear and persecution. Some have sold all their possessions in order to be able to leave their home country. In most Third World countries, migrating to the west is considered to be a socially acceptable solution to domestic problems. In interviews with IOM representatives, Third World migrants have estimated that 40-60% of their compatriots intend to emmigrate in one way or another. According to one Vietnamese migrant, "all young Vietnamese" want to migrate. Yet not all migrants come from the bottom of the social pyramid. Nor do they come from the same social class or travel for the same purpose. Many have university degrees and some have substantial property or material resources. For example, those fleeing from war in the former Yugoslavia or Georgia are usually well-off and/or well educated. Their main purpose for leaving their home is that living conditions have become quite difficult. On the other hand, those from Romania and Bulgaria are usually from the lower strata of society and are moving in order to seek better economic opportunities. Nationals of non-European countries for the most part have a high social status and are largely the children of high officials, intellectuals, and business people. For some transit migrants the main reason for transiting is to improve their personal income status without severing family ties or cultural links. In the Czech Republic, for example, a trainee medical doctor from the Ukraine earns 20 times his previous income cleaning horse stables. Such people are less likely to migrate west; settling in the west is seen as unrealistic while settling in another country is seen as unattractive. Therefore, "commuting" between their home country and a transit country is seen as the best alternative. There is a tendency for those coming from a higher social strata to experience downward mobility. Nonetheless, economic crisis and/or armed conflict has blocked many opportunities in their home countries. For those on the lower end of the social scale, downward mobility is not of utmost concern; they simply migrate because of high unemployment and ethnic discrimmination. WHERE THE GRASS IS GREENER As with the type of migrants, the intended destinations of transit migrants are not uniform but complex. Although not all migrants have the same final destination in mind, the destinations generally preferred by most migrants are western Europe (Germany, France, the Netherlands), Greece, and North America (USA and Canada). Some, such as Russians and Ukranians, plan to eventually return home. Others, such as Armenians, are looking not only for a place of refuge but a new start for themselves and their families. Their final destination tends to be the US. Nationals from non-European countries travel to eastern Europe to work or study as a means of "moving" their children gradually toward the west. People from Third World nations, such as Africans, perceive themselves as travellers rather than potential immigrants. They attempt to migrate to countries that exercised colonial rule over them because of existing cultural and linguisitc links left over from the colonial period. This has created a certain bonding effect toward their destination country. Consequently, both France and Britain are faced with what can be termed as "reversed colonialization", much to the resentment of the "true" French and British populations. Not all migrants are so eager to "go west". Greece has become a popular alternative for many migrants. Russians and Romanians prefer going to Greece because not only is it felt that it is easier to get work in Greece, but many have also developed a positive attitude to Greek state institutions, including the police. They feel that Greeks are more ethnically tolerant and, at the same time, they can rely on the protection of the law if necessary. Russians, in particular, are optimistic bcause they feel they share a common heritage through their use of a non-Caroligian script and the eastern Orthodox religion. While types of migrants and their destinations are not all the same, what transit migrants do have in common is their means for getting across "to the other side". Most migrants invariably get stuck in transit due to a lack of information about foreign countries and their policies. Many are disappointed because the countries in question most of the time do not fulfill their expectations. Information on destination countries mostly come from friends or relatives. The media is also a source of information, but it is less frequently used. Official channels, such as embassies or consulates, are rarely used. Migrants distrust any form of official information because they believe that such sources don't disclose all available options. On the other hand, unofficial information, in the form of information for a fee, is considered to be more reliable and trustworthy, as it tends to glorify and enlarge the positive aspects while at the same time underestimating the difficulties. The selling of information for a fee is not uncommon in many areas of eastern Europe. Failure is not admitted and those who have successfully made it to the west conceal their actual situation, usually by having photos taken of themselves in front of luxury cars and houses that don't actually belong to them. As a result, it is inferred that "one can live better in a foreign country" and that "this is pretty easy to achieve"; any information to the contrary is subsequently regarded as false and unreliable. In this way, a lack of information from official sources is supplanted by inaccurate and misleading information from unofficial sources. WAYS OF GETTING ACROSS The seeds for transit migration were already sown prior to the democratic revolutions of 1989. Most transit migrants from Asia, namely China and Vietnam, were guest-workers in eastern Europe during the communist era. After the change of system and the expiration of their contracts, many stayed on. Most now work as traders or "business people". Similarily, the educational programs of the previous regimes provided an ample opportunity for migration. Higher education has been frequently used as a means of getting to the west. It is estimated that throughout eastern Europe only 10% of foreign students enrolled in universities eventually graduate or even attend class. For many transit migrants, the most serious difficulty facing them is obtaining entry visas to the west. Hence, for some the only option available is to cross borders to the west illegally. "This is possible only in an illegal way", says an Albanian from Kosovo. "I would have to pay 2,000 German Marks (approximately $1,250 US) to someone to help me pass through the German border without taking any responsibility for what I will do once I am over there." As a result, Poland and the Czech Republic are favored transit areas because of their common borders with Germany. Gypsies (Romas) are most likely to cross illegally to Germany from Poland. In 1992, for example, approximately one in nine were caught at the German-Polish border. Lately, illegal border crossings to the west from Poland have been re-routed through the Czech Republic. Hungary and Slovakia, on the other hand, are not favored crossing points to the west since they share common borders with Austria, the most restricted country in terms of migration possibilities. Because of the risks involved, the final step to the west is often made using specialized networks. For this reason, many migrants end up at the mercy of racketeers. They arrive in eastern Europe encouraged by the prospect of moving onward to western Europe or North America. Working through intermediaries, they inevitably get stuck in transit. In many cases, promises are not kept, and smugglers who promised to take them to a certain country abandon them enroute, disapperaing with the money and travel documents. Subsequently, many are forced to get involved in illegal businesses and are ultimately expelled. According to the IOM, there are a number these "short-term, instrumental" networks operating throughout eastern Europe. Costs range from $500-3,000 US. Traffickers sell "migration packages" or partial services such as information, forged documents and visas, as well as help across borders. Networks are in many cases separated along ethnic lines and based on established diaspora in the west. The most complex and well developed of these are Ukrainian, Belarussian, and Russian networks. Others are based on ethnic communities within the transit countries. In addition to smuggling people across borders, these networks are often involved in other illegal trafficking activities. Eastern European countries, especially those sharing a common border with the west, have become an important link in the drug trafficking routes from the producing countries of Asia and Latin America to the consumer countries of western Europe and North America. They are also important for the smuggling of weapons, radioactive materials, and stolen cars. At present, there is increasing concern over the quietly expanding Chinese communities throughout eastern Europe. The big fear is that the Chinese mafia is being imported through specialized networks. Moreover, these communities are often organized along "mafia-style" lines and are already in control of certain spheres of organized crime. DANGERS Not surprisingly, transit migrants are exposed to a number of dangers from a number of sources. The growing visibility of foreigners has caused problems in some parts of eastern Europe, mostly in those areas where society is not accustomed to ethnic diversity and regular direct contacts with foreigners, especially those from outside the region. Foreigners are viewed as a strain on local infrastructure and institutions. They are seen as the root cause of the increase in social tensions, intolerance, xenophobia, and crime throughout the region. Young people are usually more aggressive and have a hostile attitude, blaming transit migrants for their misfortunes. Older and educated people are generally more tolerant and sympathize with the plight of the migrants. In addition to the ethnic intolerance of locals and the corrupt practices of networks, modern-day highway robbers are an incessant danger. Occurring mostly in Romania, Moldovia, Lithuania, the Ukraine, and parts of Russia, small groups of men target tourist buses on the major highways. Threatening passengers with guns, grenades, and tear gas, they rob them of their valuables and hard currency and then let them go. Sometimes, buses are issued with safe passage "vouchers" in case they are stopped further down the highway by another group. Of all dangers, what is far too often overlooked is the plight of women migrants. This is mostly because the average migrant is male, between 20 and 30 years of age. Nevertheless, women face the greatest dangers. Prostitution is a main aspect in the movement of people throughout eastern Europe. Girls from Russia and the Ukraine change hands through dealers and pimps operating an international network. The girls are usually referred to as "cabaret dancers". Many of them were actually tricked into thinking that they would become honest dancers only to find out too late that they were to be "private dancers", if dancers at all. Apart from the apparent problems related to such prostitution rings, the rights of -- and respect for -- women are simply trampled underfoot. Female artists are regarded as nothing more than fancy prostitutes. In Bulgaria, for example, a group of Russian ballet dancers were humiliated and offended when they realized that they were not being taken seriously, and that they were perceived to be mere flesh for sale rather than professional artists. While physical danger from racketeers on the one hand and the hurdles of crossing to the west on the other are constant sources of anxiety, what has been rarely dealt with is the identity crisis that some migrants -- especially Russians -- carry with them. For decades, many believed that they had come from "great nations", undertaking a historical experiment in social justice and equality. With the collapse of the communist system and the utopian image it had created, many had to reassess their past and values. In Russia, for example, one of biggest and unpronounced effects of the Cold War, the illusion of Russia as a superpower, has left Russians with a strong and painful sense of isolation and the feeling of being deprived of moral support and understanding. In the end, to return home is the only option available to some because of the difficulty in achieving their goal and the depressing prospect of a prolonged stay in eastern Europe without money. Many are caught in a no-win situation since they do not even have enough money for returning home. They end up stranded, killing time while they wait for plane tickets and money from family or friends so they could return. As a Palestinian in Bulgaria laments, "Israel doesn't want us, the Arabs don't want us...we have no passports and nowhere to go." THE LONG AND WINDING ROAD According to public opinion in many countries of eastern Europe, transit migration is generally seen as a threat both ethnically and economically. Consequently, governments have responded by tightening up on visa and residence regulations, work permits, and vigilance at border crossings. While such regulatory activity does restrict some transit migration, the result has been a growing reliance on illegal networks, thus increasing illegal activites such as people smuggling and drug trafficking. Associating transit migration with organized crime, some governments have already begun cracking down on the transit migrants themselves. Stricter assylum and immigration laws have been introduced in most western countries in response to the increasing mobility and migratory potential of eastern Europe. In conjunction with this, strict visa requirements have created a "fortress" Europe, its outer walls running along the lines of the former Iron Curtain. Following a readmission agreement between Germany and Poland two years ago, for instance, more than 10,000 Romanians have been expelled to Poland. But while governments attempt to develop strategies to combat the perceived threat of transit migration, the phenomenon itself appears to be less transitory than they would like to believe. In the words of French scholar Alexis de Tocqueville, who commented on a similar migration phenomenon taking place in the US over 150 years ago: "millions of men are marching at once toward the same horizon; their language, their religion, their manners differ; their object is the same. Fortune has been promised to them somewhere in the west, and to the west they go to find it." ############# # This message to Hungary-Online@hungary.yak.net # was from John Horvath # # To unsubscribe, # send "unsubscribe" to # An announcement-only subscription (less volume) is available # at # Send mail to for more information, # or to if you need human assistance. #############